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Fig. 1. Hypothetical ‘sufﬁcient causes’ for dementia that involve raised plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) as one of the single component causes. For example, B might be age, C hypercholesterolemia, D hypertension, E smoking, F ApoE4, G low physicalactivit

Figure 4 Diagram

A causal model illustrates how elevated plasma homocysteine may contribute to dementia through multiple pathways, interacting with other risk factors such as age, hypercholesterolemia, and genetic predisposition. No single factor is sufficient alone; rather, combinations of component causes drive disease.

Homocysteine and Dementia: An International Consensus Statement.

Figure 1. One-carbon metabolism. Abbreviations: PLP, plasma pyridoxal phosphate; MTHFR, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase; FAD, ﬂavin adenine dinucleotide; FMN, ﬂavin mononucleotide. Adapted from [16].

Figure 5 Diagram

One-carbon metabolism pathways involving folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6 are mapped, showing key enzymatic reactions catalyzed by MTHFR and the roles of FAD and FMN as cofactors in homocysteine recycling.

Causes, Consequences and Public Health Implications of Low B-Vitamin Status in Ageing.